Firm-Created and User-Generated Content as Drivers of Donation Intention: The Mediating Role of Empathy

Keywords: Theory of Planned Behavior, Firm-Created Content, User-Generated Content, Empathy, Donation intention

Abstract

An increased use of social media by non-profit organizations (NPOs) has changed the way people learn about and support charitable causes. Little empirical research has been done to comprehend how various social media content types affect donation intention through psychological pathways in NPO context. Drawing on Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), this study sought to test a model which explains whether and how FCC & UGC through empathy affect donation intention. An online self-reported questionnaire was distributed to the followers of chosen NPOs’ social media pages as part of a quantitative research design. Results of a sample of 307 analysed through structural equation modelling (SEM) revealed significant positive effect of FCC and UGC on donation intention. Furthermore, results showed empathy to be a significant psychological pathway explaining the effect of both FCC and UGC on donation intention. The study contributes to the body of knowledge and practices in relation to social media driven donation intention and empathy’s important explanatory role. The results provide useful insights to NPO managers and social media strategists in understanding how specific social media contents are capable to influence internal psychological and behavioral states of potential donors.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Ahmed, A. M., Rasool, S., Prentice, C., & Ahmad, M. H. (2022). Beliefs about the factors that motivate prosocial sentiments among people in the privileged class of Pakistan during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Journal of Social Issues, 78(3), 717-736. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12506

AHN, J. (2024). The Effect Of Nonprofit Organizations'message Communication On Donation Intention: Focusing On The Theory Of Planned Behavior Model. Korean Journal Of Convergence Science Учредители: Korean Society for the Security Convergence Management, 13(11), 315-339. https://doi.org/10.24826/KSCS.13.11.17

Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational behavior and human decision processes, 50(2), 179-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T

Al-Abdallah, G., & Wright, L. T. (2025). User-generated content vs. firm-generated content: do consumers trust fellow consumers more than firms? Evidence from the Saudi telecommunication sector. Cogent Business & Management, 12(1), 2508928. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2025.2508928

Albashrawi, M., Asiri, Y., Binsawad, M., & Alqahtani, L. (2022). The effect of social media use on empathy and welling: a personality perspective in Saudi Arabia. Journal of Asia Business Studies, 16(2), 406-423. DOI 10.1108/JABS-11-2020-0461

Anaza, N. A., Inyang, A. E., & Saavedra, J. L. (2018). Empathy and affect in B2B salesperson performance. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 33(1), 29-41. https://doi.org/10.1108/JBIM-05-2016-0103

Antony, J., Joseph, A., & Akhil, M. A. (2026). Effect of user and firm-generated content on usage intention of sports brands across social media platforms. Spanish Journal of Marketing-ESIC, 30(3), 282-302. https://doi.org/10.1108/SJME-02-2024-0038

Aziz, Y., Mansor, F., Abdullah, L. B. H., & Zada, N. (2024). Antecedent of donors’ trust and donation behaviour towards charity organization: empirical evidence from Pakistan. Middle East Journal of Management, 11(5), 565-587. https://doi.org/10.1504/MEJM.2024.140865

Bae, H. S., Grant, D. B., Banomyong, R., & Julagasigorn, P. (2024). Does customer empathy mediate between the environmental orientation of retail firms and customer purchase intentions?. International Journal of Logistics Research and Applications, 27(12), 2737-2752. https://doi.org/10.1080/13675567.2023.2264795

Bae, M. (2023). The effects of message order on emotions and donation intention in charity advertising: The mediating roles of negative and positive empathy. Journal of Marketing Communications, 29(3), 270-287. https://doi.org/10.1080/13527266.2021.2015616

Balaskas, S., Koutroumani, M., & Rigou, M. (2024). The mediating role of emotional arousal and donation anxiety on blood donation intentions: Expanding on the theory of planned behavior. Behavioral Sciences, 14(3), 242. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14030242

Ballester, E., Ruiz, C., & Rubio, N. (2021). Engaging consumers through firm-generated content on Instagram. Spanish Journal of Marketing-ESIC, 25(3), 355-373. https://doi.org/10.1108/SJME-11-2020-0189

Beldad, A., Snip, B., & van Hoof, J. (2014). Generosity the second time around: Determinants of individuals’ repeat donation intention. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 43(1), 144-163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764012457466

Bilgin, Y., & Kethuda, O. (2022). Charity social media marketing and its influence on charity brand image, brand trust, and donation intention. VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 33(5), 1091-1102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-021-00426-7

Charity Digital. (2023). Charity Digital Skills Report 2023. Retrieved from Charity Digital Skills Report data. https://charitydigitalskills.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/Charity-Digital-Skills-Report-2023.pdf

Chaudhary, A. M. (2025, March 27). Digital fundraising reshapes Pakistan’s charitable landscape. Business Recorder. https://www.brecorder.com/news/40355012/?utm_source=chatgpt.com

Chen, H., Li, W., Lyu, T., & Zheng, X. (2021). Understanding people's participation in online charities: a dual-process approach of trust and empathic concern. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 121(7), 1642-1663. DOI 10.1108/IMDS-09-2020-0513

Chen, M. F. (2020). The impacts of perceived moral obligation and sustainability self‐identity on sustainability development: A theory of planned behavior purchase intention model of sustainability‐labeled coffee and the moderating effect of climate change skepticism. Business Strategy and the Environment, 29(6), 2404-2417. https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.2510

Choi, H., Lee, T. J., & Park, E. (2026). Impact of social media communication types on brand knowledge and behavioural intention. Current Issues in Tourism, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2026.2687846

Colicev, A., Kumar, A., & O'Connor, P. (2019). Modelling the relationship between firm and user generated content and the stages of the marketing funnel. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 36(1), 100-116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2018.09.005

Decety, J., & Jackson, P. L. (2004). The functional architecture of human empathy. Behavioral and cognitive neuroscience reviews, 3(2), 71-100. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534582304267187

Dunn, A. M., Heggestad, E. D., Shanock, L. R., & Theilgard, N. (2018). Intra-individual response variability as an indicator of insufficient effort responding: Comparison to other indicators and relationships with individual differences. Journal of Business and Psychology, 33(1), 105-121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-016-9479-0

Duong, C. D., Pham, D. K., Ngo, T. V. N., Tran, N. M., & Dao, V. T. (2025). Karma-related influences on moral obligation and empathy: an ethical perspective. International Journal of Social Economics, 52(11), 1525-1538. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSE-07-2023-0571

Dusek, G., Yurova, Y., & Ruppel, C. P. (2015). Using social media and targeted snowball sampling to survey a hard-to-reach population: A case study. International Journal of doctoral studies, 10, 279. http://ijds.org/Volume10/IJDSv10p279-299Dusek0717.pdf

Eisenberg, N., & Miller, P. A. (1987). The relation of empathy to prosocial and related behaviors. Psychological bulletin, 101(1), 91.

Fazio, A., Reggiani, T., & Scervini, F. (2023). Social media charity campaigns and pro social behaviour. Evidence from the Ice Bucket Challenge. Journal of Economic Psychology, 96, 102624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2023.102624

Goh, K. Y., Heng, C. S., & Lin, Z. (2013). Social media brand community and consumer behavior: Quantifying the relative impact of user-and marketer-generated content. Information systems research, 24(1), 88-107. https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.1120.0469

Guest, G., Bunce, A., & Johnson, L. (2006). How many interviews are enough? An experiment with data saturation and variability. Field methods, 18(1), 59-82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X05279903

Gugenishvili, I. (2023). I was thinking to help but then I changed my mind! The influence of injunctive and descriptive norms on the donation intention-behavior link. Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing, 35(3), 308-327. https://doi.org/10.1080/10495142.2022.2066599

Gutentag, T., Hasson, Y., Karnieli-Miller, O., & Tamir, M. (2024). Empathy investors: Individual differences in motivational strength in empathy regulation. Personality and Individual Differences, 229, 112753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2024.112753

Gutierrez-Cillan, J., Camarero-Izquierdo, C., & Jose-Cabezudo, R. S. (2017). How brand post content contributes to user's Facebook brand-page engagement. The experiential route of active participation. BRQ Business Research Quarterly, 20(4), 258-274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brq.2017.06.001

Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2019). Multivariate Data Analysis (8th ed.). Hampshire, UK: Cengage Learning.

Hankinson, P. (2001). Brand orientation in the top 500 fundraising charities in the UK. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 10(6), 346-360. https://doi.org/10.1108/10610420110406040

Harman, H.H. (1976), Modern Factor Analysis, University of Chicago Press.

Hochstein, R. E., Harmeling, C. M., & Perko, T. (2025). Toward a theory of consumer digital trust: Meta-analytic evidence of its role in the effectiveness of user-generated content. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 53(4), 1034-1054. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-023-00982-y

Ibrahim, B., Aljarah, A., Hayat, D. T., & Lahuerta-Otero, E. (2022). Like, comment and share: examining the effect of firm-created content and user-generated content on consumer engagement. Leisure/loisir, 46(4), 599-622. https://doi.org/10.1080/14927713.2022.2054458

Ibrahim, B., Hazzam, J., Ali Qalati, S., Aljarah, A., & Dobson, P. (2025). Building a tribe on Instagram: How User- generated and Firm-created Content can drive brand evangelism and fidelity. Journal of Marketing Communications, 31(8), 905-924. https://doi.org/10.1080/13527266.2024.2338788

Kamarudin, M. K., Mustaffa, F. N. A., Ganti, N., Mohamad Norzilan, N. I., Noor Zainan, N. I., & Khidzir, M. (2025). Determinants of donation intentions in Malaysia. International Journal of Social Economics, 52(4), 643-657. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSE-04-2023-0291

Kim, J., & Kim, M. (2023). Using personalization for cause-related marketing beyond compassion fade on social media. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 17(2), 299-316. https://doi.org/10.1108/JRIM-10-2021-0242

Le, T. L., Pham, H. T., & Nguyen, N. D. (2023). How empathy and social entrepreneurial self-efficacy interact to affect social entrepreneurial intention: a polynomial regression with response surface analysis. Oeconomia Copernicana, 14(4), 1341-1366.

Lee, S., Winterich, K. P., & Ross Jr, W. T. (2014). I'm moral, but I won't help you: The distinct roles of empathy and justice in donations. Journal of Consumer Research, 41(3), 678-696. https://doi.org/10.1086/677226

Levin, K. A. (2006). Study design III: Cross-sectional studies. Evidence-based dentistry, 7(1), 24-25. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ebd.6400375

Li, B., Hou, F., Guan, Z., & Chong, A. Y. L. (2023). The use of social media for a better world: Roles of social experience, empathy and personal impulsiveness in charitable crowdfunding. Information Technology & People, 36(6), 2587-2610. https://doi.org/10.1108/ITP-04-2021-0264

Liao, C. H. (2025). Exploring the influence of media and social factors on altruistic behavior using the general learning model and norm activation theory. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 575. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-84339-7

Liu, L., Suh, A., & Wagner, C. (2018). Empathy or perceived credibility? An empirical study on individual donation behavior in charitable crowdfunding. Internet Research, 28(3), 623-651. https://doi.org/10.1108/IntR-06-2017-0240

Mehmood, S., Sade, A. B., & Mat Saad, N. (2026). Examining the effect of social media communication on donation intention via perceived moral obligation. Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 11(7), Article e004119. https://doi.org/10.47405/mjssh.v11i7.4119

Melis, A., & Nawaz, T. (2024). The impact of CEOs’ personal traits on organisational performance: Evidence from faith-based charity organisations. Journal of Business Ethics, 190(4), 919-939. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-023-05412-1

Millan, A., Retamosa, M., & Carranza, R. (2024). What about NPOs? Identifying factors in the intention to donate: The role of brand identification and past behavior. VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 35(2), 253-265. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-023-00586-8

Moorlock, G., & Draper, H. (2018). Empathy, social media, and directed altruistic living organ donation. Bioethics, 32(5), 289-297. https://doi.org/10.1111/bioe.12438

Moulard, J. G., Garrity, C. P., & Rice, D. H. (2015). What makes a human brand authentic? Identifying the antecedents of celebrity authenticity. Psychology & marketing, 32(2), 173-186. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20771

Mulcahy, R., Riedel, A., Beatson, A., Keating, B., & Mathews, S. (2024). I’ma believer! Believability of social media marketing. International Journal of Information Management, 75, 102730. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2023.102730

Obada, D. R., Dabija, D. C., & Campian, V. (2024). Predictors of social media users’ intention to donate online towards international NGOs in the fake news era. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 11(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02900-1

Pham, T. T. H., Le, T. L., Dinh, T. H., & Pham, T. T. H. (2024). FinTech knowledge as drivers of higher education students’ FinTech entrepreneurial intentions: Insights from stimulus-organism-response theory. The International Journal of Management Education, 22(3), 101027. 10.1016/j.ijme.2024.101027

Phan, T. A., & Bui, V. D. (2025). AI with a heart: How perceived authenticity and warmth shape trust in healthcare chatbots. Journal of Marketing Communications, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/13527266.2025.2508887

Phan, T. A., N. A. Pham, and N. Phan. (2025). The Role of Cuteness, Closeness, and Familiarity in Advertising Wildlife Conservation. Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing: 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/10495142.2025.2503320

Phan, T. A., Nguyen, H. K., & Huynh, M. K. (2026). Paused to feel: Rediscovering the Power of static posts in influencer-driven charity. Journal of Marketing Communications, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/13527266.2025.2612544

Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of applied psychology, 88(5), 879. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879

Poturak, M., & Softic, S. (2019). Influence of social media content on consumer purchase intention: Mediation effect of brand equity. Eurasian Journal of Business and Economics, 12(23), 17-43. https://doi.org/10.17015/ejbe.2019.023.02

Poulis, A., Rizomyliotis, I., & Konstantoulaki, K. (2019). Do firms still need to be social? Firm generated content in social media. Information Technology & People, 32(2), 387-404. https://doi.org/10.1108/ITP-03-2018-0134

Qiao, W., Huang, N., & Yan, Z. (2024). How to translate firm-generated content to sales? Evidence from online healthcare platforms. Journal of Management Information Systems, 41(4), 1173-1197. https://doi.org/10.1080/07421222.2024.2415767

Qin, M., Qiu, S., Zhao, Y., Zhu, W., & Li, S. (2024). Graphic or short video? The influence mechanism of UGC types on consumers' purchase intention—Take Xiaohongshu as an example. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, 65, 101402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elerap.2024.101402

Razali, F., Daud, D., Weng-Wai, C., & Jiram, W. R. A. (2020). Waste separation at source behaviour among Malaysian households: The Theory of Planned Behaviour with moral norm. Journal of Cleaner Production, 271, 122025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122025

Robson, A., & Hart, D. (2021). Understanding the correlates of donor intention: A comparison of local, national, and international charity destinations. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 50(3), 506-530.

Sandunima, K. C., & Jayasuriya, N. (2024). Impact of firm-created and user-generated social media marketing on customers’ purchase intention in the fashionwear industry: evidence from Sri Lanka. South asian journal of marketing, 5(1), 61-73. https://doi.org/10.1108/SAJM-04-2023-0029

Sang, V. M., Thanh, T. N. P., Gia, H. N., Nguyen Quoc, D., Long, K. L., & Yen, V. P. T. (2024). Impact of user-generated content in digital platforms on purchase intention: the mediator role of user emotion in the electronic product industry. Cogent Business & Management, 11(1), 2414860. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2024.2414860

Saputra, Y. (2024). ZISWaf Intention Through Islamic Philanthropy Organizations: Does Empathy Matter? The Role of the SOR Framework and TPB. Muslim Business and Economics Review, 3(1), 124-147. https://doi.org/10.56529/mber.v3i1.188

Schivinski, B., & Dabrowski, D. (2016). The effect of social media communication on consumer perceptions of brands. Journal of Marketing Communications, 22(2), 189-214. https://doi.org/10.1080/13527266.2013.871323

Schivinski, B., Pontes, N., Czarnecka, B., Mao, W., De Vita, J., & Stavropoulos, V. (2022). Effects of social media brand-related content on fashion products buying behaviour–a moderated mediation model. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 31(7), 1047-1062. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPBM-05-2021-3468

Shepherd, D. A., Seyb, S., & Williams, T. A. (2023). Empathy-driven entrepreneurial action: Well-being outcomes for entrepreneurs and target beneficiaries. Journal of Business Venturing, 38(2), 106290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2023.106290

Shin, N. (2024). The Impact of Social Media on Charitable Giving for Nonprofit Organization. Journal of International Technology and Information Management, 32(1), 122-140. https://doi.org/10.58729/1941-6679.1580

Suh, J. (2022). Revenue sources matter to nonprofit communication? An examination of museum communication and social media engagement. Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing, 34(3), 271-290. https://doi.org/10.1080/10495142.2020.1865231

Thomas, S., & Duffett, R. G. (2025). Using social media as a marketing communication strategy: perspectives from health-related non-profit organizations. Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing, 37(3), 373-397. https://doi.org/10.1080/10495142.2024.2361342

Ukil, M. I. (2025). Factors determining social entrepreneurial intention in a developing economy. Journal of Social Entrepreneurship, 16(1), 124-145. https://doi.org/10.1080/19420676.2022.2143869

Ukil, M. I., Almashayekhi, A., & Ullah, M. S. (2024). Feeling compassion and responsible but not starting a social venture: Role of empathy and moral obligation in social entrepreneurial intention. Society and Business Review, 19(1), 132-154. https://doi.org/10.1108/SBR-09-2022-0227

Vijaya, V., Yadav, A., & Mathur, H. P. (2023). Augmenting the theory of planned behaviour and trust in driving the funder’s intention to donate: The moderating role of herding bias. Global Business Review, 09721509231185654. https://doi.org/10.1177/097215092311856

Vijaya, Yadav, A., & Mathur, H. P. (2024). Reconnoitring antecedents of donation intention in donation crowdfunding campaigns: a mediating role of crowdfunding readiness. International Review on Public and Nonprofit Marketing, 21(1), 229-254. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12208-023-00376-4

Wang, T., Li, Y., Kang, M., & Zheng, H. (2019). Exploring individuals’ behavioral intentions toward donation crowdfunding: evidence from China. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 119(7), 1515-1534. https://doi.org/10.1108/IMDS-10-2018-0451

Wang, Y., He, X., Hu, Q., & Lou, T. (2025). The effect of childhood experience on consumers’ willingness to donate: an imprinting perspective. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 12(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-05807-7

White, K. M., Starfelt Sutton, L. C., & Zhao, X. (2023). Charitable donations and the theory of planned behaviour: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Plos one, 18(5), e0286053. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286053

Wijaya, C. O., Wijaya, S., & Jaolis, F. (2025). The influence of social media content on attitude, destination image and intention of female Muslim travelers to visit halal destinations: comparison between UGC and FGC. Journal of Islamic Marketing, 16(2), 402-427. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIMA-08-2023-0235

Winarta, P. W. M., & Martini, O. (2026). Brand Equity Mediates Firm-Created Content, User-Generated Content, and Digital Word of Mouth. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research of Higher Education (IJMURHICA), 9(1), 42-53. https://doi.org/10.24036/ijmurhica.v9i1.469

Wu, J., & Peng, X. (2026). Persuasive and Substantive: The impact of matching charity advertising appeal with numeric format on individual donation intentions. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 20(7), 944-962. https://doi.org/10.1108/JRIM-04-2025-0211

Wunsch-Vincent, S., & Vickery, G. (2007). Participative web and user-created content: Web 2.0, wikis and social networking.

Yi, C.; Jiang, Z.; Li, X.; and Lu, X. Leveraging user-generated content for product promotion: The effects of firm-highlighted reviews. Information Systems Research, 30, 3 (2019), 711–725. https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.2018.0807

Zheng, C., Qian, F., Song, J., & Wang, H. (2024). Make the photo in good shape: The matching effect of photo shapes and donation appeals on donation intentions. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 77, 103657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2023.103657

Published
2026-08-31
Section
Articles