Memahami Peranan Komunikasi dan Parti Berorientasikan Pasaran dalam Politik Malaysia
Abstract
Politik di Malaysia sedang menyaksikan perebutan undian rakyat yang semakin matang dalam usaha mengubah landskap pemerintahan negara yang sebelum ini dilihat sebagai pasif. Sejak tsunami politik dalam pilihan raya umum pada tahun 2008, parti-parti politik di negara ini semakin sedar akan kepentingan pemasaran politik. Secara teori, terdapat tiga kaedah utama pemasaran politik iaitu parti yang berorientasikan produk, pasaran dan jualan. Mengguna pakai konsep yang dipinjam daripada bidang pengurusan, pemasaran politik dilihat semakin signifikan dalam memastikan parti politik sedia ada kekal relevan dan berkuasa. Seiring dengan keadaan politik semasa, artikel ini membincangkan proses pemodelan politik yang berorientasikan pasaran dan sejauh mana peranan komunikasi mampu menarik minat pengundi di Malaysia. Dengan memfokuskan kepada kaedah ini (pasaran), aspek komunikasi dalam proses pendekatan pasaran dibincangkan secara teliti. Kajian ini akan membandingkan pelbagai mod komunikasi dari segi kelebihan dan kelemahan, terutamanya dalam memperoleh kepercayaan pengundi. Akhir sekali, terdapat juga perbincangan yang berkaitan dengan usaha pemasaran politik secara bersemuka (canvassing) sebagai kaedah penting dalam memastikan komunikasi dua hala antara pengundi dan parti politik. Ahli politik yang memilih untuk berinteraksi secara bersemuka lebih mudah mempengaruhi pengundi dengan intonasi, ekspresi wajah dan bahasa badan yang meyakinkan dalam mewujudkan hubungan yang lebih dekat dengan pengundi. Hal ini membolehkan pengundi berasa lebih dekat dan mesra dengan calon tersebut. Justeru, proses komunikasi berjalan lebih lancar dan perkara ini terbukti berjaya mempengaruhi pengundi untuk membuat keputusan yang memihak kepada parti yang mengguna pakai pendekatan pemasaran politik ini (orientasi pasaran).
Downloads
References
Adam, K., & Galanes, G. (2009). Communicating in groups: Application and skills (6th Ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
Alge, B. J., Wiethoff, C., & Klein, H. J. (2003). When does the medium matter? Knowledge building experiences and opportunities in decision-making teams. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 91(1), 26–37.
Anderson, A. H., Bard, E. G., Sotillo, C., Newlands., A.,& Doherty S. G. (1997). Limited visual control of the intelligibility of speech in face-to-face dialogue. Perception & Psychophysics, 59(4), 580-592.
Baines, P. R., Harris, P., & Lewis, B. R. (2002). The political marketing planning process: improving image and message in strategic target areas. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 20(1), 6-14.
Bayart, C.,& Bonnel, P. (2012). Combining web and face-to-face in travel surveys: comparability challenges? Transportation, 39(1), 1147–1171.
Begley, K. A. (2004). Face-to-face communication: Making human connections in technology driven world. Canada: Crisp Learning.
Blumberg, S. J., Luke, J. V., Cynamon, M. L., & Frankel, M. (2008). Recent trends in household telephone coverage in the United States. New York: Willey.
Botwinick, J. (1978). Aging and behavior (2nd Ed.). New York: Springer.
Burgess, D., Haney, B., Snyder, M., Sullivan, J. and Transue, J. (2000). Rocking the vote: Using personalized messages to motivate voting among young Adults. Public Opinion Quarterly, 64 (1), 29-52.
Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 11(1), 1-47.
Chapelle, C. (2003). English language learning and technology. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Cutright, P. (1963). Measuring the impact of local party activity on the general election vote. Public Opinion Quarterly, 27(1), 372-386.
Gerber, A. S., & Green, D. P. (2000). The effects of canvassing, direct mail, and telephone contact on voter turnout: A field experiment. American Political Science Review, 94(9), 653–663.
Gerber, A. S., Green, D. P., & Larimer, C. W. (2008). Social pressure and voter turnout: Evidence from a field experiment. American Political Science Review, 102(1), 33–48.
Goyder, J. (1985). Face-to-face interviews and mailed questionnaires: The net difference in response rate. Public Opinion Quarterly, 49(2), 234-252.
Gurnam, K. S., & Ranjit, K. (2010). Learner autonomy via asynchronous online interactions: A Malaysian perspective. International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication Technology, 6(3), 88-100.
Harrop, M. (1990). Political Marketing, Parliamentary Affairs. Oxford University Press: Oxford.
Herring, S. C. (1996). Linguistic and critical research on computer-mediated communication: Some ethical and scholarly considerations. Information Society, 12(2), 153-168.
Herzog, A. R., Rodgers, W. L., & Kulka, R.A. (1983). Interviewing older adults: A comparison of telephone and face-to-face modalities. Public Opinion Quarterly, 47(3), 405-418.
Heufers, R. (2002). The Politics of Democracy in Malaysia. ASIEN-the German Journal on Contemporary Asia, 85(1), 39-60.
Holbrook, A. L., Green, M. C., &Krosnick, J. A. (2003). Telephone versus face-to-face interviewing of national probability samples with long questionnaires: Comparisons of respondent satisfying and social desirability response bias. Public Opinion Quarterly, 67(1), 79-125.
Hornby, A. S., Wehmeier, S., Mclntosh, C., Turnbull, J., & Ashby, M. (2005). Oxford advanced learner’s dictionary. New York: Oxford Universities Press.
Jasmine, B. A, & Yarina, B. A. (2009). The Fiasco of Political Marketing: A Malaysian Election Experience. Research Management Institute, 8(1), 967-978.
John, G. (1985). Face-to-face interviews and mailed questionnaires: The net difference in response rate. Public Opinion Quarterly,49(2), 234-252.
Jonassen, D., & Kwon, H. (2001). Communication patterns in computer-mediated versus face-to-face problem solving. Educational Technology Research and Development, 49(10), 35–52.
Kahn, R. L. & Cannell, C. F. (1957). The psychological basis of the interview. The dynamics of interviewing: Theory, technique, and cases. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Katz, D., & Eldersveld S. J. (1961). The impact of party activity upon the electorate. Public Opinion Quarterly, 25(1), 1-24.
Kavanagh, D. (1996) New campaign communications: consequences for political parties. Harvard International Journal of Press and Politics, 1(3), 60-76.
Kemp, S. (2023). Digital 2023: Malaysia. Datareportal. https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2023-malaysia.
Lees-Marshment, J. (2001) The product, sales and market-oriented party: how labour learnt to market the product, not just the presentation. European Journal of Marketing, 35(9-10), 1074-1084
Lewicki, R. J., & Bunker, B. B. (1996). Developing and Maintaining Trust in Work Relationships.Thousand Oaks: Sage Publication.
Lionel, P. R., Dennis, A. L., & Hung, Y. T. (2009). Individual swift trust and knowledge based trust in face-to-face and virtual team members. Journal of Management Information Systems, 26(2), 241–279.
Manikas, P., & Thornton, L. L. (2003). Political Parties in Asia: Promoting Reform and Combating Corruption in Eight Countries. Washington: National Democratic Institute for International Affairs.
Mayer, R. C., Davis, J. H., & Schoorman, F. D. (1995). An integrative model of organizational trust. Academy of Management Review, 20(3), 709–734.
Meijden, H. V., & Veenman, S. (2005). Face-to-face versus computer-mediated communication in a primary school setting. Computers in Human Behavior, 21(1), 831–859.
Miller, R. (2009). Organisational communication: Approaches and process (5th Ed.). United States of America: Wadsworth Publication.
Miller, R., David, B., & Denise, B. (1981). Stimulating voter turnout in a primary: Field experiment with a precinct committeeman. International Political Science Review, 2(4), 445-600.
Niven, D. (2004). The mobilization solution? Face-to-face contact and voter turnout in a municipal election. Journal of Politics, 66(1), 868–884.
Orna, B. E., Amalia, H. M., Green, M. S., & Nitzan, K. D. (2004). Ethnic differences in reported smoking behaviors in face-to-face and telephone interviews. European Journal of Epidemiology, 19(7), 679-686.
Parry, J. Barth, J., Kropf, M. & Terrence J. E. (2008). Mobilizing the seldom voter: Campaign contact and effects in high-profile elections. Political Behavior, 30(1), 97–113.
Piccoli, G., & Ives, B. (2003). Trust and the unintended effects of behavior control in virtual teams. MIS Quarterly, 27(3), 365–395.
Ramirez, R. (2008). Residential mobility and the political mobilization of Latinos in Houston. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.
Ryan, M., Carlton, K. H., & Ali, N. S. (1999). Evaluation of traditional classroom teaching methods versus course delivery via the world wide web. Journal of Nursing Education, 3(6), 273-277.
Scammell, N. (1995). Designer Politics: How Elections are Won. Macmillan Press, Basingstoke.
Silver, S. D., Cohen, B. P., & Crutchfield, J. H., (1994). Status differentiation and information exchange in face-to-face and computer-mediated idea generation. Social Psychology Quarterly, 57(2), 108-123.
Silvia, P. (2002). Communicatorsimilarity and persuasion: Exploring a balance model. (Doctoral dissertation). University of Kansas.
Smith, T. W. (1995). Trends in non-response rates. Journal of Public Opinion, 7(1), 157–171.
Stevens, D., & Benjamin, G. B. (2010). Getting out the vote: Minority mobilization in a presidential election. Political Behavior, 33(1), 113-138.
The Star Online. (2008). General Election 2008 Results.
Weeks, M. F., Kulka, R. A., Lessler, J. T., & Whitmore, R. W. (1983). Personal versus telephone surveys for collecting household health data at the local level. American Journal of Public Health, 73(13), 89-94.
Wielhouwer, P. W. (2000). Releasing the fetters: Parties and mobilization of the African-American electorate. Journal of Politics, 62(1), 206–222.
Wolfinger, R. E. (1974). The politics of progress. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
